EDUCATIONAL AND COMPETITIVE DEBATE

FOR STUDENTS (Part I)

Introduction

Debate is a  challenging form of  communication. It is an oral communication, and everybody has actually been involved in the informal ones. It happens in our everyday’s life, ranging from arguing for the daily allowance for your sons and daughters -  to arguing for a particular place to visit in your  vacation. In formal  meetings debates also occur like in university’s meetings, in congress’s meetings, and in courtroom’s meetings.

The aim of this essay is to introduce students to the purpose, types, and procedures for educational and competitive debate

All beginners find debate difficult and the  words used in debating are confusing and complicated. This essay will clarify these terms in detail, so that the students could be able  to be  effective debaters.

After reading the material in this essay, we hope that you will be able to build a good argument, you will be able to support and defend it, and you will be able to  present it in a good manner.

The early parts explain about  the fundamentals, the types, the formats, and the proper use of propositions, evidence, and reasoning. The next parts explain about the building of  cases (affirmative and negative), effective delivering skill,  the use of refutation and and also rebuttal.

Unit One :  Debate Fundamentals

PURPOSE

The goal of a debater  is to try to convince the  judges that his or her position is stronger. This is usually done by giving sound evidence and reasoning to support his or her side. In addition, the ability to refutate or argue against the opponents is most important in a debate situation.  Skill in delivering speech is an important factor in the outcome of a debate.

BENEFITS OF DEBATE

Debate has benefits as an educational and competitive activity. Debate automatically improves many speaking skills, and also develops a variety of other skills. Debaters acquire the ability to " stand and think on their own feet" while responding to different opinions and arguments. They also learn how to make effective arguments that can stand  under attack from an opponent. In addition, because of the nature of the issues discussed, debaters should be more informed on current issues and should develop strong research, critical thinking, and reasoning abilities.  One of the most important  skill derived from debating is critical listening. Most people are placed on the position as passive listeners,  who tune out the majority of what is said to them. On the other hand, debaters are considered as active listeners,  who can listen to other people critically  so that they could give effective and persuassive responses.

Unit Two:  Formats of Debate

In this essay we will focus on  three formats (among other formats) that are most commonly used by the people. They are the Standard Format, the Cross-Examination Format, and the Lincoln-Douglas Format.

STANDARD FORMAT

The standard  format is one of the most popular format, particularly for beginning debaters.  It introduces students to the basic fundamentals of debate before they move on to more complex formats. The standard format usually involves two-person teams, two representing the affirmative position and two representing the negative position. This format includes two types of speeches presented by all four debaters. These are known as the constructive and rebuttal speeches. These speeches are built around the debate proposition, or resolution. The proposition is said to be the topic of the debate or the stand on an issue that the affirmative  team supports and the negative team refuses.

The constructive speeches are the first speeches in a debate where initial positions and arguments are presented. The first four speeches in the standard format are called constructive speeches. The affirmative argues for the proposition which usually asks for a change in the status quo, the way things are at the present time. Because the affirmative is in favor of a change, it is their job to show why there is a need for this change, present a plan, and show the advantages of the plan. The negative will argue that there is no need for the change, show that the affirmative plan will not work, and point out that there are more disadvantages than advantages to the affirmative plan. Thus, the negative is arguing for the status quo.

Let's assume that the topic (proposition) is Resolved: "All schools should have a strict dress code." With this topic, the affirmative would have to show why there is a need for this change, present a plan, and give advantages of a required dress code. However, the negative might argue that this might be a good idea for some schools but not all schools. The negative would try to show that the affirmative plan would not work and has few, if any, advantages.

The rebuttal speeches are in the latter portion of the debate. This is where the debaters explain again their previous arguments, respond to the opponents' arguments,

continue to defend their position, and show how their team has won the debate. For example, the affirmative speakers might point out that the negative has not adequately shown the weaknesses of a required dress code and continue to build upon their plan based on the negative's poor arguments. On the other hand, the negative might argue that the affirmative did not show a clear need for a dress code and failed to respond to their arguments against it. A more detailed discussion of constructive and rebuttal techniques will be covered later in the book.

Although some may modify the actual times for each speaker in standard debate, the format is always the same. Below,  are the typical time frames of standard format.

First Affirmative Constructive First Negative Constructive Second Affirmative Constructive Second Negative Constructive First Negative Rebuttal First Affirmative Rebuttal Second Negative Rebuttal Second Affirmative Rebuttal

7 minutes 7 minutes 7 minutes 7 minutes 4 minutes 4 minutes 4 minutes 4 minutes

CROSS-EXAMINATION FORMAT

 Debaters found this format attractive because it was more creative and challenging and required more spontaneous thinking and responses. This type of debate is similar to standard debate because it also has two affirmative and two negative speakers. However, it adds a question and answer period after each constructive speech. This part of the debate is called the cross-examination, known more commonly as the "cross-x." It is at this time that one member of the opposing team stands face-to-face with his or her opponent and directly questions the opponent. For example, following an affirmative constructive speech, one of the negative debaters would rise and question the points presented by the affirmative speaker. The ability to think and respond spontaneously without much preparation time is an important part of the cross-x format. To more fully understand this, here is an example,  think about a courtroom scene. One lawyer will ask questions, and then the other lawyer will have a chance to ask additional questions.

The normal time frames  for cross-examination debate are as follows :

First Affirmative Constructive Negative Cross-Examination of First Affirmative Speaker First Negative Constructive Affirmative Cross-Examination of First Negative Speaker Second Affirmative Constructive Negative Cross-Examination of Second Affirmative Speaker Second Negative Constructive Affirmative Cross-Examination of Second Negative Speaker First Negative Rebuttal First Affirmative Rebuttal Second Negative Rebuttal Second Affirmative Rebuttal

6 minutes     3 minutes     6 minutes     3 minutes     6 minutes  3 minutes  6 minutes 3 minutes 3 minutes 3 minutes 3 minutes 3 minutes

LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE FORMAT ( L-D)

The third debate format is known as L-D format. The primary difference between L-D and the standard  cross-examination format is that there is only one member on each team for the L-D. Thus, there is only one affirmative and one negative speaker. As a result, the burden of debating is placed on the single speaker. The debater must be familiar with all parts of the topic under consideration because he or she cannot break up or share his or her proposal with a teammate. In addition, the debater is the only one responsible for the constructive, cross-examination, and rebuttal speeches. Like the cross-x format, the debater will stand and question the opponent face-to-face.

The normal time frames for the Lincoln-Douglas debate style are put forward below :

Affirmative Constructive Negative Cross-Examination Negative Constructive Affirmative Cross-Examination Affirmative Rebuttal Negative Rebuttal Affirmative Rebuttal

7 minutes  4 minutes          8 minutes          4 minutes          4 minutes          7 minutes          4 minutes

PREPARATION TIME

Some coaches may want to include something that is known as preparation time. This is defined as "the time that elapses between speeches that is used by the debaters to prepare for their next speech." Of course, this would not be acceptable for the first affirmative speech. The time frames involved are the decision of your teacher or coach. We will examine the three most common types of preparation time formats. The first two are used primarily in standard and cross-examination formats and the third is used for the Lincoln-Douglas format.

One- or Two-Minute Rule

 With this format, each speaker is given one or two minutes to prepare for his or her next speech. If the debater exceeds the allocated time to prepare, the additional time is subtracted from his or her speaking time. Normally, the timekeeper will notify the speaker of the used time at thirty-second or one-minute intervals.

Eight-Minute Rule

In this rule each team is given a total of eight minutes to use as they wish. For example, the affirmative may decide to use three minutes before the second affirmative constructive speech, three minutes before the first affirmative rebuttal, and two minutes before the second affirmative rebuttal. The negative will then have to decide how to use their allocated time. If a team goes beyond the eight minutes, the additional time is subtracted from their next speech. Again, the timekeeper will inform the teams as each thirty-second or one-minute interval elapses.

Three-Minute Rule

This rule is usually used in the L-D format. Here, each speaker (affirmative and negative) is given a total of three minutes preparation time. Like the eight-minute rule, the speakers may use the time as they wish. Once again, when the speakers have used their entire three minutes, any additional preparation time is subtracted from their remaining speeches.

Unit Three: Propositions, Evidence, and Reasoning

PROPOSITIONS

The proposition or resolution is the actual topic of the debate. The proposition usually begins with the word "Resolved." For example, the topic used earlier read as follows: Resolved: "All schools should  have a strict dress code." There are three kinds of propositions that might be used in a debate. They are called proposition of fact, proposition of value, and proposition of policy.

The first type of proposition is called a proposition of fact. This is a statement that makes an evaluation of a person, idea, event, place, or thing. An example of this would be the following statement. "This winter has been milder than normal." Here, a judgment has been made about an actual event. This statement can easily be proved or disproved by comparing this winter's temperatures to those in previous years. Because it is relatively simple to check out, there is not much clash between the debaters. Thus, this is not the most popular type of proposition.

The second type of proposition is the proposition of value. This is where a statement is made about the worth or value of a person, idea, event, place, or thing. An example would be "Debate is a much more useful exercise than group discussion." This is more difficult to prove than a proposition of fact. It is very subjective in nature and is based upon personal opinions and beliefs. In fact, the speakers could argue for hours and never arrive at a solution. Because of this, it would be nearly impossible for a judge to reach a decision in a standard or cross-examination debate. However, the value proposition is the preferred type for a Lincoln-Douglas debate.

The third type of proposition is the proposition of policy. This is where a statement is made suggesting that a specific action or policy should be adopted. These types of propositions always contain the words "should" or "ought to." An example would be: Resolved: "All members of a sports team should be given equal playing time." Unlike the fact and value propositions, the policy proposition does not necessarily involve verification, but argues whether a policy should be adopted or abolished. This seems to be the most common type of proposition for standard and cross-examination debates. Most of the examples presented in this book will be policy propositions.

EVIDENCE

Evidence is defined as "supporting materials used in a speech to prove or disprove something." These supporting materials are used to develop your own personal points and observations. In debate, evidence must always be included by both affirmative and negative teams. If evidence is not used or is used improperly, that team will surely lose the debate. Although there are many types of supporting material, we will examine four of the more common ones. They are examples, comparison, statistics, and testimony.

Examples

When you use examples, you are telling or retelling a story, giving details that relate to your argument or point. Let's assume that you were debating the topic Resolved: "All schools should have a strict dress code." The affirmative might use the following example to support the proposition.

Central Middle School in Jones City, U.S.A., has now had a dress code for two years. Since they established this policy, it has been shown that the students are happier, there is less crime and fewer gangs, and the overall grade point average has improved. These characteristics were not present before the dress code began.

On the other hand, the negative would want to find a story or example of a school where the dress code did not work.

Examples should always be given clearly and in an orderly fashion. Your examples should also be personalized. People are interested in people. Therefore, try to tell stories that your audience can relate to by including human interest examples. Remember, as a debater, you want to convince the audience or judge that your argument is the best. By using examples that people can relate to, you will be more of a persuasive speaker.

You should use a variety of examples and avoid building your plan around only one example. Drawing conclusions without considering enough evidence is called a generalization, and this is not appropriate in a debate. It is dangerous, and your opponent will likely attack you for it. Let us reconsider the example used earlier in this section. If the affirmative followed up the example by saying, "Since the dress code was successful at Central Middle School, we can see that it will work for all schools," a generalization has been stated. The negative could easily respond by saying that this is only one example, and conclusions cannot be drawn from just one incident. This could tip the scales in favor of the negative team.

Comparison

Comparison, also known as analogy, is a comparison of two items, events, people, and so on. More specifically it involves pointing out similarities between that which is known and that which is not known. Although comparison can be effective and persuasive, it must always meet the following test: All things being compared must be closely similar in all respects. It is the speaker's responsibility to point out these similarities and

apply them to his or her plan. Let's assume that the topic is Resolved: "All members of a sports team should be given equal playing time." In order for the affirmative to effectively use comparison to support this proposition, it would need to emphasize similarities. For example, the argument might proceed as follows:

We, the affirmative, maintain that equal playing time will work at our school because it has worked at other schools similar to ours. These similarities include enrollment, geographic location, types of students, community support, students' feelings, and types of sports that are available.

Of course, the affirmative might want to include specific figures to make these similarities even more persuasive. It is very important that you point out to the audience or judge that the similarities outweigh the differences. If the judge sees more differences, you have probably lost the debate. Let's reexamine this previous example. If your school has an enrollment of 600 students and you compare it to schools with enrollments of 2,000 or more, you have not emphasized the similarities. At the same time, if your school is located in a rural area of Missouri and you compare it to schools in Chicago or New York City, you have failed to pass the "test of comparison." Using comparison appropriately will make you a better debater.

Statistics

Statistics involve the use of numbers to prove or disprove a point. Numbers can be an important factor in winning or losing a debate. Every day we are bombarded by statistics. Television commercials tell us that four out of five doctors or three out of four dentists surveyed recommend a certain product. Consider also the sports world. Newspapers and sportscasters constantly use statistics to explain the performance of a player or a team. In baseball we are given the hitters' batting averages, the pitchers' earned run averages, or a team's fielding percentage. In basketball, it might be the team's shooting percentage, number of turnovers, or the number of blocked shots. In football, it might be the quarterbacks' completion percentages, the number of third-down conversions, or the number of quarterback sacks.

Even though statistics can be effective, they can also be misleading and even meaningless. Because of this, you must keep five things in mind when using statistics.

First, be sure that they are representative of the whole. For example, let's assume you asked ten students in your school if they felt foreign language should be a required course. Let's say that six opposed this and four favored it. Could you then conclude that 60 percent of the students opposed learning a second language? The answer is no, because ten students is not a large enough sample. Other factors that may also be ignored are age, grade, sex, religion, and culture. Thus, the ten people would not be a representative sample.

A second thing to consider when using statistics is if they came from a reliable source. Remember that numbers can be used unethically, and if they come from a source that is prejudicial in a certain way, they may also be meaningless. Thus, when presenting statistics, try to use numbers that come from an objective source. Let's assume

that you surveyed 20 students to determine if the arts should receive the same funding as sports. If 15 of the students were heavily involved in art, music, or theater, this would not be a reliable source of information because three-quarte